The nature of all living beings is different. The life expectancy of people is 71 years, but there are other creatures that can live much longer.

The life expectancy of animals differs for hundreds of years depending on the species. Scientists have dealt with many of them and so come up with a lot of interesting information and facts.

Some beings seem to be immortal! Whether it is a quick regeneration of damaged organs or the transformation of old cells into the young, these animals have in their own way beat death.

We are introducing you to five species that are sure to live for more than 100 years…

Galapagos Giant Tortoise – 150 years

At the beginning of the 17th century, the pirates used the Galapagos as a base for repairing their ships and replenishing their inventories before fleeing into the Spanish colonies on the South American coasts. The main attractions were the Giant tortoises, which were taken by pirates on their ships and kept there for a several months. They were an inexhaustible source of fresh meat for them.

This animals can live up to 150 years. These turtles in their body have large supply of food and water. Thanks to this, they can withstand up to a year without food and water.

Since the 18th century, many of these turtles have been collecting for the oil that they produced. Early visitors were hunted them which led to a drastic reduction of population. No one can say with certainty how many turtles are caught during this period, but there is a story about 100,000. Today there are about 15,000 species of this amazing animal.

Bowhead Whale – 200 years

The bowhead whales can experience more than 200 years. So far the oldest known died at 211 years of age. By studying the genetic model of this animal, experts have noted genes that successfully fight cancer and are able to successfully repair damaged DNA.

The Bowhead whale 15 meters long, caught in 2007 in front of the Alaska Coast, in its body had a piece of harp from the 19th century. The top of the harp that overgrown between the whalebone and the shoulder blade was probably produced in New Bedford, on the southeastern coast of Massachusetts, the main whaling center at that time.

The number of bowhead whales in 2018 was estimated at about 12,000 with annual population growth of about three percent. For Eskimos from Alaska, this fish is an important source of food and part of the tradition, and is under the supervision of the International Commission for Whaling.

Greenland Shark – 300 years

Greenland sharks are also known as a sleeping sharks due to its lethargic appearance and shaky movement. They live north of any other known species of sharks. The Greenland shark lives in cold waters of the North Atlantic and the Arctic although it is seen in waters near France and Portugal and in St. Lawrence gulf.

The largest recorded size of Greenland shark is 6.4m; caught in the Isle of May in Scotland in January 1895 and weighed 1020kg. The length of 7.3 meters is also quoted elsewhere, though some scientists keep this as asextravagantly. The growth of Grenland sharks has slowed down due to the low ambient temperature in which they lives.

Although poisonous, meat of this fish can be consumed after it is dried for several months. This meat is known under the name hacarl and is part of the traditional cuisine of Iceland and Greenland. The Greenland shark is popular among fishermen, but has no epithet of “fighter”.

Some scientists believe that a Greenland sharks can reach the age of up to 300 years. In 1988, the unmanned submarine noticed a 6 meters female at a depth of 2200 m which is 1000 m deeper than the largest considered depth in which this species appears.

Artica Islandica Clam – 500 years

The ocean quahog (Arctica islandica) is a species of edible clam that can live for over 500 years.

In 2006, scientists were found this clam at the bottom of the northern Atlantic near Iceland. It was taken to a laboratory at Bangor University where it was found to be at least 500 years old.

The age of this animal is determined by counting the lines on its shell, similar to how the age of a tree is determined by counting the rings. It is possible to count the outer visible lines or those in the interior of the shell, which are visible at the point where two side of the shell are merged.

Scientists have come up with the nickname “Ming” because this calm was born during the reign of this famous Chinese dynasty, and its childhood dates back to the time of Queen Elizabeth I. Or discovery of America.

Immortal Jellyfish – Unlimited

Since there is a written history, we know people are fascinated by the idea of immortality, the elixir of life. But whenever this topic is mentioned, the question arises: who would ultimately want to live eternally?

One species of animal obviously has no problem with this issue – Turritopsis dohrnii or know as the immortal jellyfish!

It is discovered in the Mediterranean Sea in 1883 but their unique ability was not known until the mid-1990s. Like most jellyfish, Turritopsis dohrnii passes through two different phases in its life cycle: polyploid or immature stage and juniper or mature phase. While the average lifespan of a jellyfish usually lasts somewhere between several hours for the smallest species, up to several months and rarely several years for larger species, Turritopsis dohrnii, only 4-5 mm long, managed to deceive death by eternal regeneration.

These immortal jellyfish can be transformed between these two stages of life (pulp and jellies), that is, they can break the aging process, reverse it, and return to youth to avoid natural death. This process is called transdiference, and refers to the ability of one cell type to turn into another type.

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Six towns and villages called Bethlehem

In the world there are six towns and villages called Bethlehem. The word Bethlehem means “house of bread”. Bethlehem (“real one“, south of Jerusalem) is known for being the birthplace of Jesus Christ (according to the New Testament).

There lives one of the oldest Christian communities in the world, due to emigration today has a small number of members. According to the belief there is born and King David, who was also a crowned king of Israel.

The first Christmas crib

The first Christmas crib were made by St. Francis of Assisi in a cave in the Italian town of Greccio. They were “live Christmas Crib” as Francis put a newborn between the ox and the donkey. Christmas Crib are representation of the birth of Jesus as described in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke.

Christmas Crib are placed in homes on Christmas Eve and stay until the feast of Epiphany, and in the churches until the feast of the Baptism of Jesus. The first Christmas crib with figures, were placed in the convent of Fussen in Bavaria, 1252. Christmas Crib as we know them date back to the 16th century and flourished after the First World War.

December 25

In 330 was set December 25 as the date for celebrating Jesus’ birthday. At that time of the day in Rome to celebrate the feast of the Invincible Sun – Natalis Solis Invicta, in Greece Dionysus, and ancient Egyptians were celebrating the birth of Horus.

Santa Claus vs St. Nicholas

Austrian and German authorities were at one time banned the figure of Santa Claus, claiming that he is a product of Coca-Cola and it distracts people from the real meaning of the holidays. The initiative for this campaign started from Vienna where traditionally St. Nicholas delivers the gifts.

Red Coca Cola advertising character called Santa Claus will spread rapidly throughout the world. Although an American product, even in the communist Soviet Union after the war recognized a good opportunity for the suppression of religious Saint Nicholas, who is also replaced by the name and the image of Santa Claus, where Coca-Cola advertising Grandpa had one big advantage: it was red!

American Santa Claus name is actually a distortion of the Dutch Sinterklaas, or St. Nicholas, which was probably first spread from New York (former Dutch colony called Neeuw Amsterdam).

Silent Night

The song “Silent Night”, originally “Stille Nacht,” wrote pastor of the Austrian town of Oberndorf, Joseph Mohr,  and Franz Gruber composed this song in 1818 after spoiled organ of the parish church.

The story says that the mice actually to blame for the fact that this song at all occurred. The mice were „hungry“ and damaged the church organ so that they are simply numb.

Christmas Eve is approaching. The organ was out of order. Josef Mohr at all costs wanted to midnight mass has a new song in the church. He called for urgent Franz Gruber and then notes of “Silent Night” were prepared with a guitar. “Silent Night” has so far been translated into more than 300 languages and dialects.

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While every bird of prey is impressive, these beaked beauties soar above the rest. Prepare to take flight as we meet the largest, fastest, rarest and most powerful raptors in the world!

There are approximately 10,000 species of bird on the planet, ranging from tiny hummingbirds to imposing ostriches. Among these avian wonders, an elite group has consistently fascinated and Inspired humankind more than any other: the raptors.

These impressive flying predators, commonly known as birds of prey, are characterized by their talent for hunting larger vertebrates than most birds are capable of killing.

Each species of raptor has a particular set of specialisms, helping them to hunt, breed and survive in their chosen habitat. Large raptors like eagles dominate the food chain by using powerful wings, large talons and brute strength to overwhelm their prey. Other raptors, such as owls, use stealth to their advantage; keen senses, quiet movement and the cover of night allow these nocturnal birds of prey to thrive where others would struggle.

Despite their seemingly invincible anatomies, raptors aren’t immune to the human dangers that plague wildlife worldwide. Many birds of prey are endangered, some critically, although there is some cause for hope; conservation efforts have proven that raptors are resilient enough to repopulate their old territories and soar through the skies once more if given enough support.

We bring you some of the world’s most remarkable raptors and the unique adaptations that allow them to rule the roost.

Crowned eagle

While many raptors are known for their strength and ferocity, the crowned eagle is the most powerful. This striking African eagle dominates the forests it lives in, preying on mammals and reptiles up to five times its size and weight. It relies on a number of brutal killing strategies to take down prey: some victims have their spines snapped by the eagle’s large hind daw, while others may have their skull crushed within its vlce-like talons.

Among the crowned eagle’s most noteworthy prey are antelope such as buckbucks and duikers – this raptor is capable of killing ungulates weighing up to 30 kilograms (66.1 pounds), tearing apart their bodies and carrying away chunks of flesh to eat over the course of several days.

Smaller prey species include monkeys, mongooses, feral cats, rodents, monitor lizards and even venomous snakes. One of the eagle’s favourite hunting methods involves waiting silently in trees for unsuspecting animals to drop down on, then snatching their prey from the ground and carrying it up into the treetops to feed on it safely away from any ground-based scavengers.

The crowned eagle’s fierce nature can be observed from a young age. If two chicks are born in a clutch, the stronger of the pair will often kill its sibling, thereby immediately eliminating competition for food.

Black-thighed falconet

While many raptors are impressively large, others are adorably tiny. The black-thighed falconet’s diminutive dimensions make it the smallest bird of prey at a mere 17 centimeters (6,7 inches) in length.

It might be cute, but looks can be deceiving. The black-thighed falconet’s hunting skills make it a frightening prospect for the insects, lizards and birds it feeds on. Unlike most birds of prey, falconets hunt in groups, scouring forests, rivers and human-inhabited areas for smaller creatures to snack on.

The falconet’s small size means it’s able to take advantage of ready-made nest holes – these raptors frequently roost in holes previously occupied by barbets or woodpeckers, laying and incubating small clutches of eggs inside them.

Peregrine falcon

Built for speed, the peregrine falcon’s anatomy allows it to fly at an unbelievable pace.

The peregrine falcon isn’t just the fastest raptor – this bird’s 200-mile-per-hour (321.9-kilometre-per-hour) nosedive means it is widely considered to be the quickest animal on Earth!

Peregrine falcons can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They’re a common sight worldwide, but it wasn’t always this way. The pesticide DDT almost wiped these impressive birds out in the 1960s, poisoning them and preventing successful breeding due to the unnatural thinning of their eggshells. Thankfully, DDT was banned in the 1970s, and peregrines have been thriving ever since.

These falcons are among the most recognizable urban birds, often making their nests on skyscrapers and other tall buildings while patrolling the skies in search of pigeons to feed on. Once they’ve settled in a spot, peregrine falcons prefer to stay put; some populations have returned to the same nesting sites for hundreds of years.

Almost everything about the peregrine’s anatomy is built for speed. Its large keel (a modified breastbone specialized for flight) allows extra muscle and flapping power, while its pointed wings and slim feathers make it extremely aerodynamic, its respiratory system has also evolved to handle breakneck speeds, with specially adapted air sacs and a strong, rapid heartbeat that keep its body oxygenated at twice the flying speed most birds can handle.

Andean condor

Two birds could potentially be considered Earth’s largest raptor. Wingspan is often considered the most notable size characteristic for birds, and by this logic the largest raptor is the Andean condor. But the title goes to a different bird if you’re measuring from beak-to-tail: the California condor is five centimeters longer than its Andean cousin.

Both of these colossal raptors belong to the Cathartidae family, an avian group usually described as New World vultures. At 3.3 meters (10.8 feet), the Andean condor’s wingspan is among the largest on Earth and is exceeded only by a quartet of sea and water birds: the wandering albatross, southern royal albatross, great white pelican and Dalmatian pelican. It’s also the heaviest raptor on Earth, weighing in at a whopping 15 kilograms (33 pounds). For comparison, a common buzzard weighs just over one kilogram (2.2 pounds).

While smaller, the California condor’s 2.9-metre (9.5- feet) wingspan and 10.4-kilogram (22.9-pound) weight are not to be sniffed at and make it the largest flying land bird in North America.

Other than their mighty dimensions, condors can be recognised by their black plumage, white collars and bald heads. Their featherless domes evolved for hygiene purposes, preventing bacteria from scavenged corpses lingering on the body.

Philippine eagle

Even the mightiest birds of prey are at serious risk from the damaging activities of humans encroaching on their habitats.

Sadly, there are multiple contenders for the title of rarest raptor. From the forest owlet (an Indian bird that was thought to be extinct for 113 years until it was rediscovered in 1997) to Ridgway’s hawk (a critically endangered species that’s been heavily persecuted by farmers on its native island of Hispaniola), many species are struggling in the fight for survival.

Perhaps the rarest of them all is the Philippine eagle.

Also known as the monkey-eating eagle, this majestic bird was made the national emblem of the Philippines in an effort to raise awareness about Its plight: deforestation from fogging and agriculture have drastically shrunk the size of its habitat, while pollution, pesticides and poaching put the remaining birds at risk. At most, there are thought to be 600 Philippine eagles left in the wild.

Red kite

After being persecuted for decades, the red kite’s remarkable comeback is proof that conservation efforts really can make a difference.

It’s easy to feel dejected by doom and gloom stories about species on the brink of extinction, but the resurgence of some previously endangered creatures helps to refuel the fires of hope among conservationists. Without a doubt, one of the most impressive examples of conservation success is the red kite.

These now-ubiquitous raptors weren’t always widespread. In the early 1900s the red kite was extinct in many parts of the UK, with only a handful of the birds clinging on in Wales. Thanks to conservation efforts throughout the last century red kites have since bounced back so strongly that their numbers have become too large for the RSPB to accurately survey. They can now be seen in all parts of the UK.

Bald eagle

Bald eagles are recognized around the world as symbols of patriotism and power.

No animal is as closely linked with the pride and identity of a nation as the bald eagle. An enduring icon for the United States of America, this recognizable raptor continues to be held in regard as a symbol of patriotism and features on official emblems of the US Government.

While the US takes credit for this bird’s world-renowned status, wild bald eagles can also be found in Canada and Mexico. The raptor is considered sacred by some Native Americans, who have been using their feathers to commemorate achievement and honour for many centuries, a right only afforded to those who are part of a recognized tribe according to US law.

Unlike vultures, bald eagles don’t actually have bald heads – their name derives from an older definition of the word meaning ‘white headed’.

Long-eared owl

Silent flight allows owls to catch prey without detection.

As well as possessing night vision and radar­-like hearing, owls are renowned for being the stealthiest birds in the animal kingdom. These nocturnal predators are capable of silent flight – their specially adapted feathers convert mechanical energy into heat, preventing noise from escaping their wings and allowing them to swoop in on prey unheard.

During a study comparing pigeon, eagle and long-eared owl feathers, researchers found that despite the similar wingbeats of all three birds, the owl’s feather structure allows it to suppress acoustic noise caused by vibrations that occur during flight. The discovery is inspiring engineers to develop similarly structured noise-reduction devices for loud- but-useful products, such as wind turbines,

Harris’s hawk

Bucking the lone raptor trend, Harris’s hawks team up to conduct cooperative hunts before sharing the spoils.

While most raptors are solitary and prefer to hunt alone, Harris’s hawks are a notable exception to this rule. These intelligent and sociable birds have been described as ‘wolves of the sky’ for their amazing ability to hunt cooperatively, using strategy and teamwork to leave their prey with nowhere to hide.

Each hawk takes on a role suited to its strengths; some rely on incredible vision to spot prey for the group, while the most aerially adept individuals lead the chase. Some hawks excel in flushing prey out of hiding places, while others tactically block holes and nest entrances with their feet. Once the prey has been killed, the hawks continue to be sociable, sharing the meal with their hunting buddies.

Common buzzard

Buzzards are the UK’s most common bird of prey, breeding in every county of England, Wales and Scotland. They’re adept at hunting a wide variety of prey, including rabbits, voles, mice and small birds.

The common buzzard measures between 40 and 58 cm (16 and 23 in) in length with a 109–140 cm (43–55 in) wingspan and a body mass of 427–1,364 g (0.941–3.007 lb), making it a medium-sized raptor.

The common buzzard breeds in woodlands, usually on the fringes, but favours hunting over open land. It eats mainly small mammals, and will come to carrion. A great opportunist, it adapts well to a varied diet of pheasant, rabbit, other small mammals to medium mammals, snakes and lizards, and can often be seen walking over recently ploughed fields looking for worms and insects. (Text by World of Animals – 2018)

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As incredibly sound as it is, in our solar system there really are planets and moons on which volcanoes blast out large volumes of ice.

They’re known as cryovolcanoes (ice volcanoes).

On Saturn’s moon Enceladus volcanoes spouting ice. The flyover by Cassini several years ago revealed jets spurting from four cracks along the moon’s surface, named Alexandria, Cairo, Baghdad and Damascus.

The eruptions were so high that they could easily be seen in profile from space.

Ice volcanoes work in a similar way as volcanoes found on Earth: scientists believe that subterranean geological activity on Enceladus warms the freezing surface into a slush of water, ice and organic compounds, which is then ejected by ice sheets grinding up against one another.

Enceladus has an elliptical orbit similar to our moon, so as Saturn’s gravity pulls unevenly at Enceladus it creates a bulge that generates the friction and heat necessary to cause this previously unheard-of phenomenon.

It is also possible that on Saturn’s moon Titan exist cryovolcanoes but due to its foggy atmosphere, noticing the formation of soil on its surface is extremely difficult. Titan is, among other things, a perfect candidate for ice volcanoes, because of its extreme cold conditions, as the temperature on the surface is -180 degrees Celsius.

Also, the latest findings from the study of the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest planetoid in the asteroid field between Mars and Jupiter, show that it is home to dozens of volcanoes that blast out the frozen water and gases into the atmosphere.

The largest is called Ahuna Mons whose peak is at a height of about five thousand meters (only half the size of Mt. Everest). It is estimated that the formation of this ice volcano lasted for billions of years and further research has found evidence that it is in fact a massive ice volcano that ejects boiling salty water.

Using computer modeling and images captured by NASA’s Dawn aircraft, a team of scientists in the United States recognized 22 mountains on Ceres that have volcanoes that erupt ice. Their diameter ranges from 16 to 87 km.

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Anemia means different conditions that are associated with some blood disorders.

Anemia occurs if the blood does not contain the normal number of red blood cells, or when the red blood cells do not have a sufficient amount of hemoglobin.

Anemia is caused by insufficient formation or increased destruction of red blood cells or due to large loss of blood.

One type of anemia, which many know, is anemia due to lack of nutrition. The most common and least dangerous of this type of anemia develops when there is not enough of iron to produce hemoglobin of red blood cells.

Many foods contain only small amounts of of iron. Some people do not take enough food that has a high content of iron, such as meat and leafy vegetables. Therefore, the iron deficiency is fairly common.

Signs of anemia are pallor, nausea, a slight tendency to fatigue, dizziness and difficulty in breathing. If the patient can relax enough and if the patient has a good diet, usually recovers quickly.

Anemia is sometimes hard to be discovered because the early symptoms are so mild. Therefore, it is easy to confuse problems that are seen in other diseases or after use of certain drugs. Anemia can, slow life energy to the extent that you do makes it difficult to perform the most basic household activities. It exacerbates the problems created by other diseases if they unite with each other so drowsiness, nausea, fatigue and other symptoms become very severe.

If the anemia is not treated on time can result in the need for blood transfusions. In addition, low levels of red cells can lead to additional health problems: Anemia can lead to overload of your heart and the occurrence of heart problems, in an attempt to correct the delivery of oxygen to the tissues from the blood poor with erythrocytes.

Read also How Anemia Is Diagnosed and Treated!

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Today’s supercars are faster lighter, safer, cleaner and more efficient than ever before, as they push physics to the limit to deliver the ultimate thrill behind the wheel.

The world of the supercars has never been more advanced, and here’s how some of the market’s leading supercar companies are doing all they can to go that extra mile…

Fact: With an alleged top speed of 415 km/h (258 mph) and 1,408 kW (1,914 PS; 1,888 hp), the Rimac C Two car is claimed to be capable of reaching 60 mph from a standstill in 1.85 seconds, making it potentially one of the fastest accelerating cars ever made.

Fact: The first car in the world to hit 322 kilometres (200 miles) per hour was a purpose-built land speed machine driven by Sir Henry Seagrave at Daytona Beach in 1927.

Fact: The first car that had a propulsion power more than one megawatt, or 1,000 kW, was Koenigsegg One:1. For speeding up to 400 kph it takes 21.5 seconds.

Fact: The Ferrari LaFerrari was produced in just 499 copies and it is enough to talk about what a road car is this. Many say this model is the ‘king’ of all Ferrari cars…

Fact: The Bugatti Veyron was (for a time) the fastest production car on Earth with a hefty 736 kilowatts (1,000 brake horsepower) helping to produce a Jaw- dropping top speed of 408 kilometres (335 miles) per hour. Later Hennessey Venom GT with 435 kph took this title.

Fact: In early-2013, the Hennessey Venom GT broke the record for the quickest dash to 300 kilometres (186 miles) per hour, taking just 13.63 seconds to do so.

Fact: A glut of ultra-lightweight chassis and body panels are now used to help keep the overall weight of these cars at large to a minimum, greatly increasing a car’s power-to-weight ratio – essential for extracting maximum power.

Fact: Supercars need to be low to the ground for maximum traction, as poor grip makes for bad handling and, more importantly, no acceleration.

Fact: Supercars need to be very aerodynamic with as little drag on the body as possible, to enable the car to slip through the air with minimal resistance. For this reason most supercars now use active aerodynamics to reach such crazy figures, with the bodywork and even chassis automatically adjusting to best manage the flow of air and pressures on the car when travelling at certain speeds.

Fact: Porsche’s active rear wheel steering (which changes the direction of the rear axle by a few millimetres to allow corners to be taken more directly and at greater speed) provide small improvements to 0-60 times and top speeds.

See Top Supercars:

Rimac Concept One – McLaren P1 Supercar – Porsche 918 Spyder Hybrid – Koenigsegg Agera R Compact Supercar

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While some of Earth’s creatures -the dragonfly, for instance – don’t particularly live up to their names, the kingfisher most certainly does.

Indeed, this small but skilled riverbank predator is capable of some of the most spectacular aerial manoeuvres in the animal kingdom.

The largest bird capable of hovering mid-flight, the kingfisher can boast a number of techniques for locating and intercepting the unsuspecting fish below.

From its vantage point over a river or stream, the bird spies its victim and looks on with interest. From as high as ten metres (32 feet) above the waterway a kingfisher can home in on a single fish and then watch silently overhead by rapidly beating its wings as fast as eight times a second.

In order to remain in sync with the fish’s exact co-ordinates the kingfisher must keep its head almost entirely motionless, letting the wings and counterbalancing tail do all the work.

When ready the kingfisher strikes, performing a controlled vertical dive to ensure its dart-like bill is the first thing to enter the water. Though sharp and streamlined, it still generates shockwaves through the water that can startle a fish so speed is of the essence.

Indeed, the difference between the kingfisher catching its prize or not can come down to a matter of a mere 50th of a second! If the fish reacts within that time it’s likely to dart out of harm’s way and the hunter will go hungry.

If successful, the kingfisher then swoops off, fish in beak, back to its favourite vantage point – usually a riverbank perch. There it stuns the fish by hitting it against a hard surface before flipping it headfirst into its gullet.

Read also How does a kingfisher use its feet for hunting?

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Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a branch of scanning probe microscopy that includes several dozen ways of scanning the surface of a tiny specimen to create an image.

It can resolve images of objects mere nanometers long, over 1,000 times sharper than the best optical microscopes.

An atomic force microscope uses a cantilever with an incredibly fine silicon tip, or probe, that’s usually micrometers long and whose tip has a radius of under ten nanometers. The tip of the cantilever runs over the surface of the sample, making contact or maintaining a tiny distance depending on the settings dictated.

These microscopes can work in several modes that fall into two categories: static and dynamic. The cantilever is physically dragged over the sample’s surface in static mode and the contours of the specimen are directly measured.

In dynamic – or tapping – mode, on the other hand, the cantilever is oscillated and the varying forces that result from its interaction with the sample are recorded. The obvious advantage that dynamic mode has over static is that it can be used on ‘soft’ specimens, where contact might lead to degradation of both the sample and the tip.

Atomic Force Microscopy: Works

AFM: pros and cons

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a different type of microscopy that deals with samples of a similar size to atomic force microscopy. AFM can boast certain advantages over SEM, but it also has some disadvantages.

Atomic force microscopy wiki

AFM can create a 3D profile of the sample, unlike SEM’s 2D results and the samples don’t require any special coating either. This means specimens that might be changed or damaged by the SEM process (eg micro-organisms) can be studied. AFM can also be used in conjunction with other optical techniques and can yield higher resolutions even in liquid environments.

On the down side, AFM is limited with regard to the size of the sample scan image it can take – around 1,000 times smaller than the area SEM can capture in a single pass. Its scanning speed is slower too and an atomic force microscope can’t measure samples with particularly steep topography unless it’s specially modified.

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The arms race of hunter and hunted is a ferocious battleground with different species furiously evolving to remain one step ahead of the competition.

Cheetah – 70mph

Cheetahs are one of the fastest animals on Earth and have a terrifyingly quick 0-60 time of a mere three seconds. Cheetahs are unique in the fact they have evolved to such a degree in order to maximize their speed, that they regularly risk brain damage and starvation due to the great physical demands it places on their anatomy.The cheetah is fast, the fastest land animal on Earth, but that speed comes at a great price.

For example, lungs, nostrils and heart are all enlarged within the cheetah to ensure it can process enough oxygen and blood to maintain its explosive speed.

However, it can only process this for short periods of time and at the close of a lengthy chase not only does it skirt dangerously close to oxygen deprivation but it must rest post-kill before it eats, leaving plenty of time for scavengers to surround it.

In addition, while its muscle fibre is honed and holds superb elasticity, its physique is slender and lightweight, leaving it vulnerable to broken limbs and completely defenceless against a larger and heavier rival such as a lion or tiger.

Due to these facts – as well as through human-caused habitat loss and predation – cheetah numbers are dwindling and it is currently an endangered species in many African countries.

Sailfish – 70mph

With a top speed on par with that of a cheetah, the sailfish is lightning fast and one of the most difficult-to-catch fish in the world.

Thanks to its stiffened, tapered body and scissor-shaped caudal fin, the sailfish is built for speed – a speed that comes courtesy of a rapid and ferocious flicking of its tail. Indeed, during a chase to consume fish, crustaceans or cephalopods, the sailfish will flick its tail back and forth hundreds of times, utilizing the powerful muscles which run down its compressed body.

As with a peregrine falcon, the sailfish’s speed is also aided by its ability to retract parts of its body, in this instance its various fins (notably the large dorsal fin that adds over a foot on to its overall height). This feature helps it reduce the effects of drag and minimise resistance to its movements.

Its spine is also very flexible and as with the cheetah allows it to generate increased thrust through the rapid curves it bends its torso into while swimming.

Peregrine falcon – 130mph

If you thought the cheetah was fast, then think again. The peregrine falcon blows its top speed out of the water by over 130mph. Capable of hitting a monumental 200mph during a stoop (dive), the falcon has the highest top speed of any animal on Earth.

The peregrine’s speed is caused by a combination of factors. Firstly it makes use of gravity, diving upon its prey from great height, even when they themselves are airborne. Secondly, its anatomy – as with the cheetah’s – has been finely honed to maximize speed, evolving over millions of years into the swift and efficient killer it is today.

For example, the peregrine’s keel – which is located at its breastbone – is significantly larger than average birds’, allowing for bigger muscles and a greater number to attach its wings to its body.

This allows it to generate far more power per thrust when building speed. Further, the peregrine’s wings have evolved to be incredibly pointed, with slim, stiff and unslotted feathers, which helps streamlining and reducing air resistance significantly.

Unlike the cheetah, however, arguably the peregrine handles its awesome speed much better. Firstly, while having the same enlarged heart and lungs, the peregrine does not suffer damage from oxygen deprivation at the close of its stoop. This is partly due to gravity’s beneficial aid in generating its killer speed but also due to the peregrine’s ability to absorb oxygen through its red muscle fibres, of which it has many. This allows it to keep a steady oxygen flow at all times and means that, consequentially, it does not need to rest post-kill, reducing its vulnerability to scavengers.

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Not many psychological terms causes so much interest as intelligence. As soon as you mention intelligence, there is a whole range of questions.

What is intelligence, what is its structure, whether it is determined by inheritance or is being developed by individual’s, the development of intellectual abilities throughout life, what is the range of human intelligence, is it possible to measure intelligence and many other questions…

The concept of intelligence

The word intelligence comes from the Latin word inteligere and means “to understand”.

Intelligence is a mental characteristic that consists of the ability to learn from experience, adjust to new situations, understand and use abstract concepts, and use knowledge to mastering new situations. The concept of intelligence today is generally considered to be a set of different, individual independent intellectual abilities.

Although the definitions of intelligence differ, theorists agree that intelligence is a potential rather than a fully developed ability. Intelligence is considered to be a combination of inherent characteristics of the nervous system and developmental intelligence, shaped by experience and learning.

Although one might think that high intelligence allows to a person success in society, many other factors that affect the social success make predictions unreliable. Mechanisms of transforming intellectual ability into social success are not fully clarified. For example, there is a strong link between success in elementary school and intelligence, but after elementary school it is no longer possible to predict the success of individuals based on intelligence.

Intelligence can be measured, though imperfect, with intelligence tests.

What are the tests of intelligence and IQ?

IQ tests is a series of tasks that measure the ability of creating abstract ideas, learning and mastering new situations.

The most common intelligence tests are Stanford-Binet’s IQ test and Wechsler’s IQ test. Stanford-Binet’s test is the American adaptation of the French Binet-Simon test, and was first used by Lewis Terman 1916, a psychologist at Stanford University. The result of the test is expressed in units of intelligence quotient (IQ).

The IQ was initially counted as the ratio of the person’s mental age and the actual age, multiplied by the 100. For example, if a child of 10 years old reached an intelligence test at the level reached by an average 12-year-old, his IQ would be: (12/10) X 100 = 120.

However, today tests do not include the calculation of mental age, but the test result is expressed as an IQ. Today IQ is calculated from the static percentage of people expected to have a specific IQ. The results of intelligence tests follow normal distribution, meaning that most people achieve results around the middle of the distribution curve, and the probability of achieving results far from the middle of the curve suddenly decreases.

10 facts about intelligence

FACT: Terrence Tao has a verified IQ of 230 makes it most intelligent man of the world. He is an Australian-born Chinese American mathematician. He is working in harmonic analysis, partial differential equations, additive combinatorics, ergodic Ramsey theory, random matrix theory, and analytic number theory. At 24 became the youngest ever full professor at UCLA.

FACT: William Sidis was the most intelligent man in history. Born in 1898, already as a child showed extraordinary math and language skills. His intelligence quotient based on a psychological test of 1933, allegedly, was estimated at between 250 and 300.

FACT: White people are NOT more intelligent, that was a mistake and myth! Regarding the differences in intelligence among races, it was found that in tests of intelligence the black people had an average result of 10 to 15 points lower than the white ones. For a long time this information has been abused for evidence of the superiority of the White Race, but later the researchers realized that the tests of intelligence were culturally conditioned. At the time when this difference was found, black people were not in the same position to get quality education as white people, which influenced the differences found. Also, intelligence tests have been designed by white people in the western world. In recent times, when differences in the possibilities of education between white and black people have diminished, differences in IQ does not exist.

FACT: Left-handed people are NOT more intelligent than right-handed! The idea that left-handed people are generally more intelligent than right-handed was based on the examples of famous left-handed people like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Beethoven, Benjamin Franklin, Isaac Newton… The study of University of Adelaide was conducted on more than 5,000 people. Experts have tracked the school’s success and impression of students about their abilities and found that the left-handed are on average the same or even less successful in the school than the right-handed.

FACT: Atheists are NOT more intelligent than believers! That atheists are more intelligent is another myth. After this myth started spreading over the Internet in past 10 years, more than 200 studies in the world were conducted that did not show any difference between atheists and believers. The only thing that has been proven is that the students of IT and theological faculties are the most intelligent.

FACT: In the last 100 years the IQ of women grew faster than that of men – now the results that women achieve on IQ tests are same as in men. Reason behind this is same as in black people explained before. In past women were not in the same position to get quality education as men.

FACT: Hong Kong has the highest number of people with the highest IQ in the world, and the average IQ is as high as 107. Second is Japan- it is known for its extremely rigorous education system, for which students have to devote much of their day and night to learning and schooling. Even 99 percent of the population is educated. The average IQ in Japan is 105.

FACT: For serial killers are believed to have above-average intelligence. The average IQ of serial killers is 102.

FACT: Intelligent people are inclined to empathize with others, even strangers on the other side of the world, in a situation where they never were.

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