Anemia means different conditions that are associated with some blood disorders.

Anemia occurs if the blood does not contain the normal number of red blood cells, or when the red blood cells do not have a sufficient amount of hemoglobin.

Anemia is caused by insufficient formation or increased destruction of red blood cells or due to large loss of blood.

One type of anemia, which many know, is anemia due to lack of nutrition. The most common and least dangerous of this type of anemia develops when there is not enough of iron to produce hemoglobin of red blood cells.

Many foods contain only small amounts of of iron. Some people do not take enough food that has a high content of iron, such as meat and leafy vegetables. Therefore, the iron deficiency is fairly common.

Signs of anemia are pallor, nausea, a slight tendency to fatigue, dizziness and difficulty in breathing. If the patient can relax enough and if the patient has a good diet, usually recovers quickly.

Anemia is sometimes hard to be discovered because the early symptoms are so mild. Therefore, it is easy to confuse problems that are seen in other diseases or after use of certain drugs. Anemia can, slow life energy to the extent that you do makes it difficult to perform the most basic household activities. It exacerbates the problems created by other diseases if they unite with each other so drowsiness, nausea, fatigue and other symptoms become very severe.

If the anemia is not treated on time can result in the need for blood transfusions. In addition, low levels of red cells can lead to additional health problems: Anemia can lead to overload of your heart and the occurrence of heart problems, in an attempt to correct the delivery of oxygen to the tissues from the blood poor with erythrocytes.

Read also How Anemia Is Diagnosed and Treated!

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Not many psychological terms causes so much interest as intelligence. As soon as you mention intelligence, there is a whole range of questions.

What is intelligence, what is its structure, whether it is determined by inheritance or is being developed by individual’s, the development of intellectual abilities throughout life, what is the range of human intelligence, is it possible to measure intelligence and many other questions…

The concept of intelligence

The word intelligence comes from the Latin word inteligere and means “to understand”.

Intelligence is a mental characteristic that consists of the ability to learn from experience, adjust to new situations, understand and use abstract concepts, and use knowledge to mastering new situations. The concept of intelligence today is generally considered to be a set of different, individual independent intellectual abilities.

Although the definitions of intelligence differ, theorists agree that intelligence is a potential rather than a fully developed ability. Intelligence is considered to be a combination of inherent characteristics of the nervous system and developmental intelligence, shaped by experience and learning.

Although one might think that high intelligence allows to a person success in society, many other factors that affect the social success make predictions unreliable. Mechanisms of transforming intellectual ability into social success are not fully clarified. For example, there is a strong link between success in elementary school and intelligence, but after elementary school it is no longer possible to predict the success of individuals based on intelligence.

Intelligence can be measured, though imperfect, with intelligence tests.

What are the tests of intelligence and IQ?

IQ tests is a series of tasks that measure the ability of creating abstract ideas, learning and mastering new situations.

The most common intelligence tests are Stanford-Binet’s IQ test and Wechsler’s IQ test. Stanford-Binet’s test is the American adaptation of the French Binet-Simon test, and was first used by Lewis Terman 1916, a psychologist at Stanford University. The result of the test is expressed in units of intelligence quotient (IQ).

The IQ was initially counted as the ratio of the person’s mental age and the actual age, multiplied by the 100. For example, if a child of 10 years old reached an intelligence test at the level reached by an average 12-year-old, his IQ would be: (12/10) X 100 = 120.

However, today tests do not include the calculation of mental age, but the test result is expressed as an IQ. Today IQ is calculated from the static percentage of people expected to have a specific IQ. The results of intelligence tests follow normal distribution, meaning that most people achieve results around the middle of the distribution curve, and the probability of achieving results far from the middle of the curve suddenly decreases.

10 facts about intelligence

FACT: Terrence Tao has a verified IQ of 230 makes it most intelligent man of the world. He is an Australian-born Chinese American mathematician. He is working in harmonic analysis, partial differential equations, additive combinatorics, ergodic Ramsey theory, random matrix theory, and analytic number theory. At 24 became the youngest ever full professor at UCLA.

FACT: William Sidis was the most intelligent man in history. Born in 1898, already as a child showed extraordinary math and language skills. His intelligence quotient based on a psychological test of 1933, allegedly, was estimated at between 250 and 300.

FACT: White people are NOT more intelligent, that was a mistake and myth! Regarding the differences in intelligence among races, it was found that in tests of intelligence the black people had an average result of 10 to 15 points lower than the white ones. For a long time this information has been abused for evidence of the superiority of the White Race, but later the researchers realized that the tests of intelligence were culturally conditioned. At the time when this difference was found, black people were not in the same position to get quality education as white people, which influenced the differences found. Also, intelligence tests have been designed by white people in the western world. In recent times, when differences in the possibilities of education between white and black people have diminished, differences in IQ does not exist.

FACT: Left-handed people are NOT more intelligent than right-handed! The idea that left-handed people are generally more intelligent than right-handed was based on the examples of famous left-handed people like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Beethoven, Benjamin Franklin, Isaac Newton… The study of University of Adelaide was conducted on more than 5,000 people. Experts have tracked the school’s success and impression of students about their abilities and found that the left-handed are on average the same or even less successful in the school than the right-handed.

FACT: Atheists are NOT more intelligent than believers! That atheists are more intelligent is another myth. After this myth started spreading over the Internet in past 10 years, more than 200 studies in the world were conducted that did not show any difference between atheists and believers. The only thing that has been proven is that the students of IT and theological faculties are the most intelligent.

FACT: In the last 100 years the IQ of women grew faster than that of men – now the results that women achieve on IQ tests are same as in men. Reason behind this is same as in black people explained before. In past women were not in the same position to get quality education as men.

FACT: Hong Kong has the highest number of people with the highest IQ in the world, and the average IQ is as high as 107. Second is Japan- it is known for its extremely rigorous education system, for which students have to devote much of their day and night to learning and schooling. Even 99 percent of the population is educated. The average IQ in Japan is 105.

FACT: For serial killers are believed to have above-average intelligence. The average IQ of serial killers is 102.

FACT: Intelligent people are inclined to empathize with others, even strangers on the other side of the world, in a situation where they never were.

The post 10 True Facts About Intelligence appeared first on Some Interesting Facts.

The food that we consume contains many important components, such as proteins, fats, carbon hydrates, water and mineral substances. But all this is not enough. In order to keep us alive, we need yet vitamins.

Plants and animals produce vitamins. We need to use vitamins in certain amounts for the normal life processes to take place. When our body does not have enough vitamins, there are some diseases.

Long ago, before man knew about vitamins, it was noted that people get sick when they can not get some kind of food. For example, on long voyages of the sailors, who were deprived of fresh vegetables, they’re suffering from a disease called scurvy.

When, more than a hundred years, vitamins discovered, did not know their chemical composition. They are simply called vitamin A, B, C, D and so on. Read also Facts About Eating Healthy Food!

Facts about Vitamin A

Vitamin A is found in the fatty tissue of animals and derived from plants with which animal food. This vitamin is important for the maintenance of vision. You can find in milk, egg yolk, liver, fish oil, carrots and so on.

Vitamin A protects cell membranes and strengthens the skin and mucous membranes, which helps prevent many infections and uncontrolled proliferation of tissue, it can rightly call “patron of the whole organism.”

Vitamin A is important for reproductive function in both men and women, and it is also essential for proper immune function.

Night blindness

The first information about night blindness, a disease caused by decreased intake of vitamin A, dating back to ancient Egypt. In fact, it was known then that in its treatment helps baked or boiled liver, which was later found to be naturally rich source of vitamin A.

Unlike other vitamins that we can use in increased amounts, this vitamin is specific in that it can cause hypervitaminosis and be toxic. Therefore, this vitamin is used primarily in the recommended daily doses in a daily multivitamin, while the isolated use must be under the control of the doctor.

Read also Why We Gain Weight?

Facts about Vitamin B

Vitamin B is actually a group consisting of at least six different vitamins. The best-known is vitamin Bi, which is necessary for the normal operation of the nervous system. It is located in milk, fresh fruit and cereal grains.

If is in the body enough B vitamins, we are happy and satisfied, good sleep and have enough energy. Their lack has a direct impact on cardiovascular health.

Even 20 percent of depressive states is associated with a deficiency of one or more vitamins of the B complex group. Our mood, memory, motivation and a sense of satisfaction is determined by vitamins B12, B3 and B1.

Vitamin B1 is essential in the process of converting carbohydrates into glucose from the body and brain gain energy. It is irreplaceable in the production of energy at the cellular level, as well as the production of energy from fat.

Facts about Vitamin C

Vitamin C is the most famous of all vitamins. Because of the lack of this vitamin are sprayed small blood vessels, and creating bruises, especially around the eyes, while gums often bleeding, in addition, is reduced and the resistance of the whole organism, especially to some diseases. Vitamin C is in the fresh fruits and vegetables.

Vitamin C discovered and described Hungarian biochemist and Nobel Prize winner, Dr. Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, who for this extraordinary discovery in 1937 received the Nobel Prize for Medicine.

Powerful immunostimulant

Vitamin C is a powerful immunostimulant and a strong ally in the fight against viral and bacterial infections. As a powerful antioxidant able to neutralize harmful free radicals and thus contribute to cleanse the body of toxins and heavy metals.

It is essential for the synthesis of collagen, a naturally occurring protein that is responsible for the structure of the skin, muscle, bone, tendons and ligaments.

The most productive natural sources of vitamin C are fruits and vegetables… lemon, tangerine, orange, pomegranate, strawberry, cherry, grape, apple, grapefruit, green and red peppers, potatoes, cabbage and many others.

Facts about Vitamin D

Vitamin D is important for the proper development of teeth, bones and whole skeleton. Due to its lack, arises disease called rickets. It can be found in large quantities in fish oils, liver and egg yolk. The sun’s rays allow the creation of this vitamin in our skin.

Older people and those with dark complexion, do not get as much benefit from the sun as a light-skinned people. Experts say it is best for them to take vitamin D through diet and supplements.

People who have higher levels of vitamin D have a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Also maintain optimal levels of vitamin D in the blood may be a strategy for the prevention of diabetes type 2.

Vitamin D plays an important role in activating the immune system to defend against diseases such as influenza. The lack of this important vitamin can result in a higher risk of contracting viral diseases.

Studies have shown that vitamin D deficiency can cause cancer, depression and heart disease.

Read also Facts About Adipose Tissue!

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How does this gateway control the molecules that pass from the blood into the brain.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an essential group of cells that line the blood vessels in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

They allow passage of materials between the clear fluid surrounding the brain (cerebrospinal fluid) and the red blood cells in arteries, veins and capillaries. The key advantage of having such a barrier is that it prevents large microorganismspassing into the brain and causing infections.

While infections in other areas are common (such as after a cut finger, or mild chest infections), those affecting the brain are much rarer. However when they do occur (eg meningitis), they are potentially life threatening as they are very difficult to treat.

The tight junctions between cells regulate the size and type of particle that pass between them, including oxygen molecules, carbon dioxide molecules, nutrients and hormones. Since it’s so effective, it also stops medications from entering the brain (such as certain antibiotics), so while they are effective in the rest of the body, they are ineffective in this vital organ.

Overcoming this is a major aim of doctors in the next decade, and the battle has already started. Manipulating the blood-brain barrier’s natural transport mechanisms and delivering drugs within nanoparticles to squeeze through the tight junctions are just two examples of the modern techniques that are under development.

Crossing the BBB

The endothelial lining of the blood-brain barrier loves lipids (fatty molecules), but it hates particles with high electrical charges (ions) and large substances. Thus the ideal substance is small, rich in lipids and has a low electrical charge.

Barbiturates are such an example, as they freely flow across the blood-brain barrier to suppress brain function; they act as sedatives and antidepressants. However this free movement comes with risks – too much of it will accumulate and slow the brain to a point where you can lose consciousness and even stop breathing.

Blood Brain Barrier facts

Astrocyte – These numerous star-shaped cells provide biochemical support to the endothelial cells, and also play an important role in transportation and repair.

Just passing through – Some ions are transported out of the blood cells and into the astrocytes, and then out of the astrocytes and into neurons in the brain.

Special transport – Active and passive transporters across this membrane can overcome some of these problems, and be manipulated to deliver medications to the correct place.

Highly charged – Highly charged ions are repelled, meaning that some medications are ineffective in the brain.

Read also: The Blood-brain Barrier Versus Bacterial Foreigners, Caffeine blocks disruption of blood brain barrier? , Analytical and Biological Methods for Probing the Blood-Brain Barrier

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Proteins are large complex molecules made up of a chain of amino acids. Every cell in our body needs protein to stay alive as it is necessary for tissue repair and replacing dead cells.

They have many other functions as well as aiding cell repair and production including forming antibodies to help fight off disease, forming enzymes which speed up or trigger chemical reactions and co-ordinating processes within the body (via hormone regulation, for instance). Proteins also provide support for cells and form structural elements of the body, such as nails and teeth, as well as facilitating the transportation of some small molecules around various systems.

We build proteins using information encoded in our genetic code. DNA code utilizes groups of three letters (a mix of A, G, C and T) and these short sequences, which are known as triplets or codons, then code mRNA templates; these templates are ‘translated’ by cell ribosomes into amino acids.

Each protein is made up of hundreds of thousands of amino acids, which are in long chains. There are 20 different types of amino acid that can be combined to build a protein and it is the sequence of amino acids that determines each protein’s unique three-dimensional structure and its function.

However, not all amino acids can be made by the body. The ones that need to be consumed via our diet are called essential amino acids. If possible, the body will also conserve energy by using amino acids from food rather than producing them itself. Protein deficiency can cause diseases such as kwashiorkor, a form of malnutrition common in poverty-stricken areas.

Why are amino acids important?

Amino acids are vital to our bodies being able to operate as they are the building blocks of proteins. Each type of amino acid performs a different Job, which aids protein activity in the body and determines the protein’s primary function(s). Without these proteins would not be able to help the body with movement, defence against disease, processing food or co-ordinating general growth and development.

There are nine essential amino acids for humans that must be absorbed from external protein sources (eg meat/ fish) as they cannot be synthesized by the body. Without the required amount of amino acids, the body can really suffer.

Protein production

Protein is generated in the nucleus of a cell using genetic coding information held within our DNA. To produce protein, DNA unravels to allow messenger RNA (or mRNA) to copy it and form a template. This template is translated by ribosomes into amino acids, which then line up to form a protein. Parts of DNA code will serve as punctuation, telling the ribosome when to start and stop, and some parts will instruct the cell how frequently it must produce the specific protein.

1. Cell – The body is made up of millions of cells, none of which could survive without protein, for repair and replacement.

2. Nucleus – This is the control centre of the cell where all important genetic data is stored.

3. Chromosome – Most human cells have a set of 46 chromosomes and these contain our genetic information which, among other things, instructs the cell which protein to make and also how.

4. Nucleosomes – These are balls formed of DMA strands and histones (spool-like proteins) which sit inside chromosomes.

5. DNA – DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) holds the information necessary for amino acid – and ultimately protein -production in the letter sequence in its structure.

6. mRNA – This type of genetic acid forms a template based on DNA sequences, which is then used to produce amino acids by the ribosome.

7. Ribosome – This is the ‘protein-making machine’ in the ceil. It uses mRNA templates to synthesise the specific protein needed.

8. Amino acid – These small molecules combine in specific string sequences to generate the different types of protein.

9. Protein – Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids. Each protein has a specific function which suits its role and is crucial to our bodies being able to operate effectively.

The post How Do We Make Proteins appeared first on Some Interesting Facts.

Before the discovery of the compass, the position, destination and direction at sea were determined by knowing relief of the coast and the observation of the stars and Sun. Ancient sailors often did not get away from the coast.

Discovery of a compass has made it possible to determine the direction even during cloudy times or on open sea.

Compass is a navigational instrument that reacts to the magnetism of the Earth, and is used for determining sides of the world. Moving magnetic needle is always turning north. The magnetic compass is very simple and accurate and on most journeys we can trust it. We bring you some interesting facts about the compass:

Fact: An unknown inventor – It is not known who invented the compass, but the first ones who used the magnetic needle to point direction were the Chinese. In 1040 they described how magnetic pins were made.

Fact: Magnetite minerals and water – Most of the early Chinese compasses were made of magnetite minerals that would be bolted like a lace. On this magnetic float, placed in the water, the Earth’s magnetic field would work, so it would always be in the north-south direction.

Fact: Use of magnetite – Needle of the compass was magnetized by rubbing the magnetite, blue-brown ore that came from China and Bengal.

Fact: Origination of name – According to the legend, the word “magnet” derives from the name of the city Magnesia in Asia, there was a magnetite ore site in ancient times. According to another legend, the word originated from the name of shepard Magnus from Crete, who had iron shoes and once stopped on a stone made of magnetic ore.

Fact: Useful improvement in Europe – Around 1300 the maritime compass was already widely used in southern Europe, Scandinavia and Iceland. But at this time the compass got useful improvement – it is placed in a cardanic hinge (two axes connected to the ring brass, allowing it to remain permanently in the horizontal position regardless of the swing of the ship).

Fact: Wind rose – One more important improvement is the introduction of “wind rose”, that is, round tiles with sides of the world and a circle divided into 360 degrees. The “wind rose” would rotate until its northern direction would cling to the north end of the magnetic needle. After that, it was possible to read the ship course correctly.

Fact: William Gilbert experiments – In 1600, physician William Gilbert laid the foundations of today’s knowledge of magnetism. In De Magnete’s work, he describes all the current knowledge of magnetism, lists all the experiments performed, and in one chapter describes the healing properties of the magnetite. William Gilbert made a magnetite ball on which he conducted numerous experiments, finally coming to the conclusion that Earth is a huge magnet with magnetic poles. source: https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-magnetism/pioneers/william-gilbert

Fact: North Magnetic Pole – The North Magnetic Pole is located in northern Canada and it’s exactly where the compasses are shown to us. If you are at the top of the magnetic north pole, the arrow will turn into a circle because you are surrounded by a north magnetic field.

Fact: Qibla compass  – or qiblah compass is a modified compass used by Muslims to indicate the direction to face to perform ritual prayers. In Islam, this direction is called qibla, and points towards the city of Mecca and specifically to the Ka’abah.

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Did you know that it is estimated that almost every fifth product contains platinum or that platinum is needed for its production…

Many believe that platinum is the same as white gold and due to the lack of information about it, are not able to understand, and therefore did not explain what platinum really is.

Platinum represents a completely independent type of noble metal that can be found in nature and as such, it does not even have touch points with a white gold which is actually a gold alloy and a certain type of white metal

Since the discovery to the present value of platinum is constantly growing. In addition to being used for the manufacture of expensive jewelery and ornamental items, the use of platinum is very widespread in various industrial branches, even in medicine…

Fact: Platinum is grayish-white. It is harder than copper, and is stretchy almost like gold.

Fact: Platinum is a very heavy metal. One cube of platinum, whose side would be 30 centimeters long, would have a weight of 500 kilograms! Platinum is almost twice as heavy as lead.

Fact: Platinum is usually found in mines, often mixed with rare metals such as palladium, rhodium, iridium and osmosis, which are called “platinum metals”. It is sometimes mixed with gold, copper, silver, iron, chrome and nickel. It appears in the form of grains, scallops and bulbouss.

Fact: Platinum deposits were first discovered in South America in the 18th century. The old peoples of South America used platinum to make jewelery and body decorations, but evidence of its use was probably destroyed by the arrival of Spaniards and Portuguese in those areas.

Fact: Just a few hundred years ago platinum was neither industrial nor strategic or noble metal. During the 17th century in South America, the Spanish conquerors considered the platinum to be a problem because it was mixed with the found gold. In the Ural mountain range in Russia there was a lot of unnecessary metal “platinum”, so the Russian government decided to change currency from gold to platinum. In the following years it was made nearly half a million ounces of platinum in Russian rubles and so they changed it from a cheap metal a noble metal.

Fact: Platinum is more precious than gold. It is estimated that platinum found in entire history can be placed in a cube less than 10 cubic meters. The vast majority of platinum found today comes from two sides of the world, South Africa and Siberia in Russia. The largest platinum site, Merensky Reef in South Africa, was discovered in 1924.

Fact: More than 50% of the annual platinum production is used by the automobile industry. Platinum as a relatively precious metal has incredible investment potential. It is more expensive than gold, and therefore is considered an attractive investment instrument.

Fact: The earliest item that testifies to the use of platinum dates back to the 7th century BC and is kept in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The Egyptian jewelery box is decorated with hieroglyphs, made of gold and platinum alloys.

Fact: It is considered that the first description of platinum in Europe was recorded by the Italian humanist and poet J. C. Scaliger (1557), who writes about white, heavy, invulnerable and nonflammable metal. For chemists of the 18th century, platinum was a new and insufficiently researched metal, and was first described in professional literature in 1748.

Fact: The alloy of platinum (90%) and iridium (10%) has been chosen to create a standard meter and the standard kilogram. The prototype of the kilogram has a roller shape of 39 mm high and 39 mm in diameter, and the international prameter, which was used from 1889 to 1960, has a rod shape. Since 1983, the meter is defined by the speed of light

Fact: In July 2015, an asteroid, which allegedly contained about 90 tons of platinum and other precious metals, flew near the Earth. Scientists are examining the possibilities of using natural resources on asteroids by sending space telescopes that should gather enough information to start “asteroid mining” one day…

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When doctors need the highest quality images possible they turn to MRI scanners, but how do they work?

Doctors often plan treatments based on imaging X-rays, ultrasound and CT scans provide useful pictures, but when the highest quality images are needed, they turn to MRI scanners.

While CT scanners use x-rays and therefore expose the patient to radiation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses powerful magnets and is virtually risk free.

MRI scans are obtained for many medical conditions, although since they are expensive and complicated to interpret, they certainly aren’t as easy as taking a chest x-ray. Examples for which they are used include planning surgery for rectal cancers, assessing bones for infection (osteomyelitis), looking at the bile ducts in detail for trapped gallstones, assessing ligamental damage in the knee joints and assessing the spinal cord for infections, tumours or trapped nerves.

Physicists and engineers use and manipulate the basic laws of physics to develop these incredible scanners for doctors to use. MRI scans provide such details because they work at a sub-molecular level; they work on the protons within hydrogen atoms. By changing the position of these protons using magnetic fields, extremely detailed pictures of the different types of pictures are obtained. Since these pictures rely on the tiny movements of these tiny particles, you need to lie very still during the scan.

Slice by slice images

Specially wound coils, known as gradient coils, allow for the detailed depth imaging which creates the slice by slice pictures.

While the main superconducting magnet creates a very stable magnetic field, these gradient coils create variable magnetic fields during the scan.

These fields mean that the magnetic strength within the patient can be altered in specific areas. Since the protons realign at different rates in different tissue types, the relationship between the strength of the field and the frequency of the emitted photons is different for various tissues. Detecting these differences allows for very detailed images.

Powerful computers outside the main machine then reconstitute all of this data to produce slice by slice imaging. Depending on what’s being scanned, 3D reconstructions can then be created, such as for brain tumours.

Planning from the detail

The detail provided by MRI scanners enables doctors of all specialties to plan their treatment. When footballers damage their knees, an MRI scan will tell if the ligaments are ruptured.

Knee surgeons can then reconstruct the damage, often via keyhole incisions (arthroscopically). MRI scans are used to characterize a variety of tumours, such as those of the rectum (the lowest part of the colon) and within the brain.

MRI gives enough detail to determine the size and stage of the tumour. This helps specialist surgeons plan whether the tumour is resectable, and also how to perform the operation.

The MRI’s key lies in its ability to differentiate soft tissues – it can even tell the difference between infected and normal tissues. Infections within bones are best identified using MRI, and then surgeons can plan whether to treat with antibiotics, an operation, or if the infection is spread too far, an amputation.

MRI Scanner Construction and Work

It’s a big, hi-tech machine and there are different varieties all around the world, found in hospitals, medical research centres and even zoos, but they all work on common principles of manipulating the laws of physics.

Radiofrequency transmission – A radiofrequency transmission causes the protons to flip around, and then turning this off causes the protons to re-align. This movement releases energy that is detected by the scanner to create pictures.

Enhancement – Contrast agents are used in addition to enhance the contrast between tissue types. For looking at joints such as the shoulder or knee, contrast can be injected directly into the joint prior to the scan. For the blood vessels, an intravenous contrast is injected during the scan.

Bang bang! – The gradient coils are switched on an< off rapidly and alter the magnetic field in specific tissue areas. As they switch on and off, the coils contract and expand by tiny amounts. This produces a loud noise which is heard as a series of loud bangs.

Looking for tumours – Since the protons in different tissue types return to their normal state at different rates, they give off different frequencies of energy and so contrast between different types of tissues can be seen. This allows identification of a brain tumour from normal cells.

Gradient coils – These coils produce much weaker, variable magnetic fields compared to the superconductors. These gradient fields are specifically targeted to certain tissues, allowing for depth and detailed tissue type differentiation.

Superconducting magnets – These powerful magnets create very stable magnetic fields, which align protons within the body’s hydrogen atoms. The magnets are cooled to near absolute zero and so are well insulated from the patient.

The tunnel – The tunnel which the patient lies in is very narrow; some patients don’t fit. There are small lights and a radio with headphones to keep you comfortable.

The computer – Once the changes in energy have been detected within the scanner, they are transmitted to powerful computers outside the scanner, which transform the data into useful images.

Lie table – The patient lies down on a narrow plastic ‘table’ outside the machine, which is then advanced slowly into the tunnel.

According to the intensity of the magnetic field MRI scanners are divided into:

• low field strength devices – up to 0.5 T
• medium field strength devices – 0.5 T to 1 T
• high field strength devices – 1 T and above (1.5 T, 2 T, 3 T, 7 T, …)

MRI Scanner facts

Careful – Due to the powerful magnets, any metal objects left in the room can be pulled towards the magnet and can harm patients. Examples have included oxygen cylinders and chairs.

Pacemakers – Pacemakers were absolute contraindications to MRI scans; modem pacemakers and implantable defibrillators, however, are being designed to be ‘MRI safe.’

The most modern – MRI scans can be combined with PET scans. These PET-MRI scans produce anatomical and functional images, such as assessing for extent of tumour growth and tumour activity.

Now that’s cold – The coils of the superconducting magnets are cooled to lower their resistance. Liquid helium cools them to near absolute zero (around -270”C).

Mobile MRI – Mobile MRI scanners can go to the patients. They are based in big articulated lorries and can be stationed outside hospitals to provide extra scanning capacity.

The post How Does An MRI Work appeared first on Some Interesting Facts.

Charles Babbage invented the first computer, called the Difference Engine. How on earth did it work?

The Difference Engine is the first automatic, mechanical calculator designed by British mathematician Charles Babbage, who proposed its construction in 1822 to the Royal Astronomical Society.

He suggested the machine would employ the decimal number system and would be powered by turning a handle, as a method to calculate mathematical tables mechanically, therefore removing the high rate of human error.

At first Babbage received financial backing from the British Government, but this was later pulled when no apparent progress had been made on constructing the device. The inventor went on to design a more general analytical engine and then later in 1847 an improved engine design – the Difference Engine No. 2.

From 1989 to 1991, using Babbage’s plans of this second version, the London Science Museum constructed Babbage’s envisaged machine.

Faithful to the original designs the machine consists of over 8,000 parts, weighs five tons and measures 11 feet in length.

In 2000 the printer which he plotted to accompany the engine was added and together performed as the inventor had intended over a century before. The completion of the machine ended a long-standing debate as to whether Babbage’s designs would’ve worked.

Charles Babbage

Born in London in 1791, Charles Babbage was a mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer. He was formerly tutored as a child in Devon and Middlesex, and in 1810 he attended Trinity College where he claimed to be disappointed in the mathematical education available.

Teaming up with John Herschel and George Peacock, among others, Babbage and company formed the Analytical Society in 1812.

In 1814 he married Georgiana Whitmore and moved to Dudmaston Hall in Shropshire where Babbage engineered the central heating system. The couple had eight children, three of which survived to adulthood.

In 1827 Charles’ wife, father and at least one son died, it was these sad events which caused the inventor to suffer a mental breakdown, delaying the construction of many of his machines.

He died aged 79, it is thought of ‘renal inadequacy, secondary to cystitis’. Half of his brain is preserved in the Hunterian Museum in the Royal College of Surgeons, London.

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Mixing silver nitrate and copper is one of the most famous chemistry experiments, with it starring in many a school science lesson around the globe.

The experiment involves introducing copper – typically a copper wire – to a silver nitrate/water solution and suspending it there for a couple of hours.

The combining of both triggers a single replacement reaction, where copper is changed from its elemental form (Cu) to its blue aqueous ion form (Cu2+ [aq]), while the silver ions (Ag+ [aq]) in the silver nitrate solution will be changed into their elemental metallic form (Ag) and deposited onto the wire.

These silver deposits continue to grow off the copper in a series of fractal-like crystals until all reactable copper in the solution is exhausted, leaving the end products of silver and copper nitrate.

The reason this replacement reaction occurs is that the atoms in the copper are oxidised when introduced to the silver nitrate solution, losing electrons and forming copper ions, while the silver ions in the nitrate solution are reduced (ie they gain electrons) into elemental silver.

What’s really cool is that once the silver crystals have grown they can be removed from the copper, dried off and then displayed as funky pieces of fractal art.

What is silver nitrate

The silver nitrate is a silver salt of a chemical formula of AgNO3. Due to its high solubility in water and other polar solvents, much less light sensitivity than silver halides, as well as lower prices due to lower production costs, is used as a universal precursor for the synthesis of many other silver compounds.

Silver nitrate is a crystalline substance of white color. The melting point was 212 ° C (413.6 ° F) and the boiling point at 444 ° C (831.2 ° F) with degradation to elemental silver, nitrogen (IV) oxide and oxygen.

When making a photographic film, the solution of silver nitrate is mixed with a solution of sodium or potassium halide salt to produce an insoluble silver halide in a photographic gel applied on tri-acetate or polyester ribbons.

Silver nitrate is also used to prepare some explosives such as silver fulminate, silver azide and silver acetylide.

Use of silver nitrate in medicine

For the last 120 years, numerous studies have been carried out, taking into account chemistry of nanoparticles of silver and their antimicrobial application.

About silver as antibiotic and sterilizer are the pages of numerous books. All of them have been based on human experience for the past 1200 years.

Silver and silver products have been known for thousands of years due to their impact on hygiene and health. Even Hippocrates, the father of medicine, knew his healing properties.

Medieval pharmacists were selling silver nitrate, which they called lapis, as a means of rubbing or removing warts on the hands. Silver nitrate was also replenished for the treatment of severe burns, and it worked to prevent infection.

In the second half of the 19th century German gynecologist Carl Siegmund Franz Crede found that 1% of silver nitrate solution had a great impact against gonorrhea.

This discovery is so significant and reliable that even today, when newborns are born, the silver nitrate is poured into the eyes to prevent gonorrhea conjunctivitis.

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